This material will provide us with the reference frame for a comprehensive study of tropical cyclones around the globe. Factors necessary for their formation. Fig. Part I: Climatology and mean structure changes. It is important to be aware of the potential for tropical cyclones and to have an emergency plan in place to protect yourself, your family, and your property in the event of a tropical cyclone. The environmental vorticity gradients will change the structure of the gyres and so will change the propagation of the tropical cyclone compared to the steering. Water Thus, we cannot think of the environment blowing past the storm or blowing it over. A. They occur as waves with maximum amplitude close to the level of the African Easterly Jet (AEJ) and low-level maximum amplitude north of the jet. With the new range, the categories match across units. [9] Nearly all trees on the island were leveled by 290km/h (180mph) wind gusts. City University of Hong Kong, What is the weather like in a cyclone? The moisture above the boundary layer provides a favorable environment for sustaining deep convection and for forming larger convective complexes. Matsuura, T., M. Yumoto, and S. Iizuka, 2003: A mechanism of interdecadal variability of tropical cyclone activity over the western North Pacific. IR techniques, meanwhile, observe only the cloud tops and thick cirrus can hide the underlying TC structure. A tropical cyclone will not develop instantaneously: some intermediate, weaker disturbance is needed to provide the "seed" from which a tropical cyclone can develop (Fig. Tropical cyclone variations on decadal timescales are discussed in Section 8.6.4, and Section 4.3.2). A small contribution to this surface ocean cooling may also come from the storm rainfall. The TUTT forces ascent in the region of the developing tropical cyclone, but provides very little vertical wind shear increasing the storm convection and strengthening the upper-level outflow of the storm. Clearly, this will dry and stabilize the boundary layer locally,70 suppressing further convection (Fig. How do we know that Catarina achieved hurricane status (at least 33 m s-1)? 119. Derived from science on 9 September, became Ingrid. Tropical cyclones cannot suddenly appear on their own. What is the stage of development of the tropical cyclone under research? Use the above equation to guide your thinking. The reasons for the slope of constant absolute angular momentum surfaces in a tropical cyclone and the link to the eyewall structure are discussed in Box 86. In meteorology, it is conventional to refer to specific quantities.i This is because we do not define individual parcels of the atmosphere and so we are not concerned with the mass or other properties of a parcel, but rather with properties of the atmosphere in general. 52. Hartmann, D. L., H. H. Hendon, 2007: Atmospheric science: Resolving an atmospheric enigma. Consider the impacts of the storm environment, including the presence of multiple storms. 8.63). 79. However, in the 85 GHz microwave images, the eye is prominent (Fig. the IR-BD curve, to identify intense convection and changes in the cloud Since the ocean surface impacts the tropical cyclone from below, no amount of inertial stability will protect the tropical cyclone from adverse impacts due to cool SSTs. 178. As with the frictional weakening of the storm, topography can play a role in these weather-related impacts: the topographic enhancement of the already intense rainfall associated with the storm. Multiple daily views of the same tropical cyclone have become more common as the network of LEO satellites continues to expand. Cecil, D. J., E. J. Zipser, and S. W. Nesbitt, 2002: Reflectivity, ice scattering, and lightning characteristics of hurricane eyewalls and rainbands. Risk of power In summary, a tropical cyclone moves through a combination of advection by the average tropospheric winds of its environment and propagation due to the vorticity gradients of the Earth and its environment (including other tropical cyclones in Fujiwhara interactions), as well as variations in motion due to horizontal and vertical wind shear. [5] In Lockhart River, an estimated 700 people evacuated to shelters prior to the storm. Mature Stage. In 1975, Vern Dvorak introduced a classification scheme for estimating the intensity of TCs from satellite imagery.103 The Dvorak Technique, which was developed using empirical data, relates a numerical index (called the current intensity or CI) to an estimate of the maximum sustained winds (MSW)103 at the surface (Table 8.2). Is the role of the MJO here simply to increase or decrease the likelihood that an incipient disturbance could develop adequate convection to intensify further,50,142,143 or is the question more complex? Ingrid was the ninth named storm and second hurricane of the 2013 Atlantic hurricane season. Watch videos from Super Simple in the Super Simple App! [3], On September 13, convection and organization increased and the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Ingrid, while weak steering currents resulted in little movement of the cyclone. Development of tropical cyclones. (a) Conceptual model of the main structural elements of tropical cyclones. In the context of the "necessary but not sufficient conditions for genesis, discuss how one phenomena from each of (a) and (b) leads to variations from the mean tropical cyclone climatology. 27. 151. It has nothing to do with CO2. 8.22). Volunteers delivered about 600blankets and various cleaning supplies to the town of Pnuco. beechcraft duke vs baron; Fig. A disturbance graduates to a more intense stage of development by attaining a specified sustained wind speed. Large SAL outbreaks can weaken any midlevel disturbances in the flow through the generation of a stronger midlevel easterly jet, which causes a more zonally oriented midlevel flow, thus eliminating this tropical cyclogenesis mechanism. Therefore, by using the horizontal temperature gradient at the level of the warm core and the surface wind structure, we can infer the threedimensional symmetric wind field of the cyclone. Fig. Tropical cyclone satellite observations: (a) the Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM) Precipitation Radar (PR), TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI), and Visible Infrared Scanner (VIRS); (b) 3D radar reflectivity from the TRMM PR; (c) Aqua-EOS IR; and (d) CloudSat reflectivity profile along the red line in (c). Indeed, Rossby wave dispersion has been used to explain gyre evolution but the traditional treatment of Rossby waves considers a purely zonal background flow that results in westward propagation. B. Halverson, B. S. Ferrier, W. A. Petersen, R. H. Simpson, R. Blakeslee, and S. L. Durden, 1998: On the role of hot towers in tropical cyclone formation. Hurricane Fifi (1974, Honduras), a 1930 hurricane (Dominican Republic) and Hurricane Flora (1963, Haiti and Cuba) are all recorded to have caused around 8,000 fatalities, as was the Galveston Hurricane of 1900. Major Hurricane Wilma at peak intensity at 1400 UTC 19 Oct 2005. Tropical Cyclone 02B at ~ 1900 UTC, 29 April 1991. The two main theories for potential intensity are CISK and WISHE. Dong, K., C. J. Neumann, 1986: On the relative motion of binary tropical cyclones. Sorensen (2000)234 reviewed twenty years of warning systems and found several major factors that affect the desired response to a warning or evacuation declaration. Tropical cyclones are synoptic-scale low pressure systems, so must spin cyclonically. The Cyclone Phase Space(CPS)35 is a diagnostic that utilizes the thermal wind to document the structure of meso-synoptic cyclones concisely. A sample image, for Hurricane Ivan (2004), is shown in Fig. The death toll was estimated at just over 3000 persons compared with the hundreds of thousands from the past cyclones. Tropical cyclones typically weaken as they recurve,96,97 but as they move into the extratropics these systems can reintensify into intense midlatitude storms with extensive regions of intense rain and larger gale (and even hurricane) force wind areas than their tropical antecedents.122 The remnant tropical cyclone can also provide a region of enhanced thermal contrast for the later development of an intense midlatitude storm. Images are taken near 0000 UTC 21 Sep 2005. Evans, J. L., K. McKinley, 1998: Relative timing of tropical storm lifetime maximum intensity and track recurvature. Bister, M., 2001: Effect of peripheral convection on tropical cyclone formation. Furthermore, Hurricane Andrew (1992), a Category 5 hurricane, made landfall near Miami during an inactive season. Land use also matters: all else being equal, a heavily built-up or forested area will have a larger frictional effect than a swampand evaporation of moisture from the swamp may delay weakening or even cause the storm to temporarily reintensify.37 A storm is generally modified differently by passage over an island compared to a continental land mass. Hence, when the storm loses this energy source it begins to weaken. On September16, Ingrid made landfall just south of La Pesca, Tamaulipas in northeastern Mexico as a strong tropical storm, and dissipated the next day. 111. Click "done" for feedback. SST and tropopause temperatures (Fig. The TUTT is a meso-synoptic upper cold low that has been linked to genesis in the western North Pacific and North Atlantic. 90. Sorensen, J., 2000: Hazard warning systems: Review of 20 years of progress. This can enhance the tropical cyclone development. [25] Heavy rainfall forced 23,000people to evacuate their homes, 9,000of whom went to emergency shelters,[26] some forced to leave by the Mexican army in high risk areas. One example is the accumulated cyclone energy (ACE), a measure of wind energy that is defined as the sum of the squares of the maximum sustained surface wind speed (knots) measured every six hours for all named systems while they are at least tropical storm strength. Shapiro, L. J., 1982: Hurricane climatic fluctuations. Above the oceans just north and south of the equator, a weather phenomenon called a tropical cyclone can develop that can drastically alter the physical and cultural landscape if it reaches land. Early statistical predictions of North Atlantic seasonal hurricane activity relied predominantly on the phases of ENSO (either prior to the season or predicted for the peak of the season) and the QBO, as well as Caribbean sea level pressures. The case of Hurricane Georges on 19 September 1998 illustrates the intensification phase of the eyewall replacement cycle. Part I: Synoptic Evolution. The abscissa spans the 13 months, December through January of the following year; the ordinate is the number of storms per hundred years. f For a weather system with large relative vorticity, such as a tropical cyclone, LR can be generalized as. Zhu, H., R. K. Smith, and W. Ulrich, 2001: A minimal three-dimensional tropical cyclone model. Something went wrong. A man moved to a remote village and cut contact with loved ones. 8.2 Three-Dimensional Structure and Flow Balances, 8.2.1 Key Structural Features of a Mature Tropical Cyclone, 8.2.2 Stages of a Typical Tropical Cyclone Lifecycle, 8.2.2.3 Tropical Cyclone (typhoon, hurricane), 8.2.2.4 Severe Tropical Cyclone (supertyphoon, major hurricane), 8.2.2.5 The End of the Tropical Cyclone Lifecycle: Decay or Extratropical Transition (ET), Box 8-3 Record Tropical Cyclone Intensity in the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, 8.2.3 Mass Balance Solutions and Scaling Considerations, 8.2.3.1 Geostrophic, Gradient and Cyclostrophic Wind Balances in the TC, 8.2.3.2 Inertial Stability Variations in a TC, Box 8-4 Hurricane Mitch (1988): A Devastating Storm in Central America, 8.3.1 Necessary Conditions for the Formation of a Tropical Cyclone, 8.3.2 Dynamic Controls on Genesis in the Monsoon Trough Environment, 8.3.2.3 Tropical Cyclogenesis Associated with the TUTT, 8.3.3 Mesoscale Influences on Tropical Cyclogenesis, 8.3.3.2 Development from Subtropical Storms, 8.3.5 Summary of Possible Tropical Cyclogenesis Mechanisms, 8.4.1.1 Early Theories of Potential Intensity: CISK, 8.4.1.2 WISHE: A Carnot Cycle Theory of Potential Intensity, Box 8-6 Sloping Angular Momentum Surfaces: Linkage to the Eyewall, 8.4.2 Environmental Factors Limiting Tropical Cyclone Intensity, 8.4.3 Links between Inner Core Dynamics, Cyclone Structure and Intensity, 8.4.4 Estimation of TC Intensity by Remote Sensing, 8.4.4.5 TC Intensity and 34-kt Wind Speed Radius, 8.4.4.6 Remote Sensing of Inner Core Dynamical Features, 8.5.1 Global Climatology and Mechanisms Leading to ET, 8.5.2 Definitions of ET Onset and Completion, 8.6.1 Seasonality of Tropical Cyclone Formation, Box 8-7 South Atlantic Tropical Cyclone Catarina (2004), 8.6.2.1 Intraseasonal Modulation by the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO), 8.6.2.2 Intraseasonal Modulation by the Saharan Air Layer (SAL), 8.6.3.1 Interannual Modulation Due to the El Nio Southern Oscillation (ENSO), 8.6.3.2 Interannual Modulation by the Quasi Biennial Oscillation (QBO), 8.6.4 Decadal Cycles and Long Term Climate Influences, 8.6.5 Seasonal Forecasting of Tropical Cyclone Activity, Box 8-9 Unusual Tropical Cyclone Seasons around the Globe, 8.7.1 The "-Effect" and Environmental "" effect, 8.7.2 Interaction of Vortices: The Fujiwhara Effect, 8.7.3 Other Factors Impacting Tropical Cyclone Motion, Box 8-10 The Deadliest Storms on Record: The Bangladesh Cyclones of 1970 and 1991, 8.8.5 Impacts of Extratropical Transition, Satellite image of Tropical Cyclone Ingrid as it approached Cape York peninsula, http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/tcp/documents/FactShtTCNames1July05.pdf, Animation of Wind Damage and Saffir-Simpson Scale, http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/news/20120301_pis_sshws.php, http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/sshws_table.shtml?large, http://www.wmo.ch/pages/prog/www/tcp/Advisories-RSMCs.html, http://www.bom.gov.au/weather/wa/cyclone/, http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/tcp/Advisories-RSMCs.html, http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/tcp/index_en.html, http://www.nrlmry.navy.mil/tc_pages/tc_home.html, http://www.comet.ucar.edu/nsflab/web/hurricane/324.htm, http://tropic.ssec.wisc.edu/storm_archive/2003/storms/isabel/isabel.html, http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/Storm_pages/isabel2003/eye_small.mov, http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/nhurr97/GPSNDW.HTM, http://www.eol.ucar.edu/rtf/facilities/dropsonde/gpsDropsonde.html, http://moe.met.fsu.edu/cyclonephase/help.html, http://www.meted.ucar.edu/norlat/ett/michael/, http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pdf/TCR-AL052007_Erin.pdf, http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pastdeadly4.shtml, http://lwf.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/reports/mitch/mitch.html, http://www.nrlmry.navy.mil/sat_training/tropical_cyclones/ssmi/rain/index.html, http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/pages/history/story008.html, http://www.australiasevereweather.com/cyclones/2002/summ0112.htm. Shapiro, L. J., H. E. Willoughby, 1982: The response of balanced hurricanes to local sources of heat and momentum. Impact of tropical cyclones on human activities and the environment. stages of development of tropical cyclone ingrid ( 125) 42294-021. stages of development of tropical cyclone ingrid [email protected]. The MJO cycle is identified here by the 200 hPa velocity potential anomalies (10, Fig. Light (medium) blue shading indicates regions in which the monthlymean Eady baroclinic growth rate of the most unstable mode is greater than 0.25 day, Fig. The clear eye results from this subsidence (Fig. There are no clouds at the eye of the cyclone. The tradition begun by Duckworth and O'Hair continues to this day: the 53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron of the Air Force Reserve (commonly known as the "Hurricane Hunters") and the NOAA Corps continue operational and research flights into hurricanes today. The rains caused widespread flooding, damaging at least 14,000 houses and hundreds of roads and bridges. Emanuel, K. A., 1986: An air-sea interaction theory for tropical cyclones. Simpson, R., R. A. Anthes, and M. Garstang, Eds., 2002: 221. 42. The size of the island and its topographic scale will cause a range of impacts on the storm. In both storm analyses take (a) 15 m s-1 for the "strength" wind value and (b) 500 km for the outer wind radius. [2] Early on September12, the low emerged into the bay, and at 1800UTC the National Hurricane Center (NHC) assessed that Tropical Depression Ten developed about 280km (170mi) east-northeast of Veracruz. 850 hPa wind observations (dots) for Hurricane Diana on 12 Sep 1984, symmetric gradient wind (solid) and gradient wind change (dash) deduced from the observed height field. Use f~ 10-5 s-1 as before. the cash guideline premium and corridor test; movie haitien le destin de caroline; omega properties alabama; easter memes clean While this is true, the strong vertical wind shear that leads a storm to begin recurvature causes the majority of storms to weaken.96,97 This weakening can be understood in terms of the reorganization of the storm in adjusting to this new environment.75,98 The tropical cyclone is a fluid vortex and so it is not separate from its environment: the cyclone and environment are part of one system. The development of cycle of tropical cyclones may be divided into three stages. The hurricane reached category 4 as it approached the east coast of the USA. Strong vertical wind shear [>1015ms1 over 850-200 hPa] is often observed to weaken a developing tropical cyclone through suppression of its core convection. Maps of the mean minimum sustainable surface pressure, a measure of potential intensity, in February (upper) and September (lower). The curved band pattern is based on the idea that the more At this time, Ivan had weakened from category 5 to category 4 with sustained winds of 65 m s, Fig. intensity.100,101,102. The impacts from both storms produced 162billionm3 (5.7trillion cu ft) of water, the equivalent of filling every dam in the country. This increase in asymmetry is a basic indicator of the onset of transition, but does not guarantee that the system will complete transition28,30,70many tropical cyclones commence extratropical transition, but decay before completing their evolution into a fully cold-core cyclone. top pattern around the eye. One of the most important local events, the Australian rules football final, was cancelled due to Ingrid. Karyampudi, V. M., H. F. Pierce, 2002: Synoptic-scale influence of the Saharan air layer on tropical cyclogenesis over the eastern Atlantic. Ekman, V. W., 1905: On the influence of the Earth's rotation on ocean currents. Maloney, E. D., D. L. Hartmann, 1998: Frictional moisture convergence in a composite life cycle of the MaddenJulian Oscillation. Microwave scatterometers generally perform best in moderate-wind and low-precipitation environments,111 outside of the highwind and high precipitation region of the eyewall. Guishard, M. P., J. L. Evans, and R. E. Hart, 2009: Atlantic subtropical storms. D.Portion Control: How to avoid overeating https://bit.ly/2W4dIsY It's a Super Simple weather song! We cannot yet say whether the gyre is this monsoon breakdown or a distinct path to genesis, however two studies44,46 of the frequency of different paths to genesis in the monsoon regime suggest that the gyre is a relatively rare path to genesis. Nicholls, N., 1992: Recent performance of a method for forecasting Australian seasonal tropical cyclone activity. An alternative perspective145 is that genesis is more likely for western Pacific storms not because the MJO acts an inherent control on genesis, but rather that the general increase in convective activity in the enhanced phase of the MJO produces many more seed systems from which a tropical storm could develop. It can be identified on satellite imagery as a clear region with widely scattered, small convective cells. Fig. Radial profile of rotational winds for a theoretical tropical cyclone and the variations in this profile due to intensity, strength, and size changes. This means that in rare cases, the same storm is assigned two names depending on its track (Fig. Kiladis, G. N., M. Wheeler, 1995: Horizontal and vertical structure of observed tropospheric equatorial Rossby waves. Ballester, M., C. Gonzlez, and R. Prez Surez, 2004: Modelo estadstico para el pronstico de la actividad ciclnica en el Ocano Atlntico, el Golfo de Mxico y el Mar Caribe. Fig. Maximum flashes are occurring in rainbands to the northeast of the eye, which is over central Florida. 8.7. 8B9.2. Reed, R. J., D. C. Norquist, and E. E. Recker, 1977: The structure and properties of African wave disturbances as observed during phase III of GATE. Lander, M. A., 1994: Description of a monsoon gyre and its effects on the tropical cyclones in the western North Pacific during August 1991. 8.16), measure the daily likelihood of genesis.42 In recent years, a number of tropical cyclones have remained within 5 latitude of the equator,43 suggesting a need to relax this constraint. In this view, boundary layer convergence provides all of the moisture available to ascend into the convection and condense as rainthus providing the latent heat release that is converted to mechanical energy: the winds of the tropical cyclone. Since ocean temperatures and vertical wind shear have been strongly tied to the likelihood of tropical cyclogenesis, the link between these environmental fields and hurricane variability should be unsurprising. Links between inner core dynamics and changes in intensity are explored. Liebmann, B., H. H. Hendon, and J. D. Glick, 1994: The relationship between tropical cyclones of the western Pacific and Indian Oceans and the MaddenJulian oscillation. (4) the cooled air is assumed to return to the tropical cyclone environment Tornadoes generated with the passage of Hurricane Ivan (2004) caused major damage in Florida, even though the storm made landfall further west. Adapted from Fig. 8.65. 8.59, Chapter 4).162,163,164,165 As with ENSO, the effects of the QBO on tropical cyclone activity are regionally dependent. Meteorologists have divided the development of a tropical cyclone into four stages: Tropical disturbance, tropical depression, tropical storm, and full-fledged tropical cyclone. 204. Longterm records of tropical cyclone activitysuch as the six century landfall record for China181may be used to test this link. Completion of the ET process signifies that the tropical system has developed midlatitude storm characteristics, in particular the development of a cold-core thermal wind structure (geostrophic wind speed increasing with height).35,70 Klein et al. Together, these centers cover all regions of the global tropics affected by tropical cyclones. Fig. Although detrimental to the original vortex, shear acted in concert with this vortex to modify the thermodynamic environment (through generation of convection, convergence and moistening of the atmosphere), so that when the Danny vortex reformed, it could intensify (further details of this process are given in Section 8.4.1.2). The periodic cycling of the ocean conveyor belt187 has been tied to long-term variations in Atlantic Ocean temperatures and extended West African droughts,191,192 apparently making a good case for multidecadal fluctuations in the ocean currents as the source of ocean surface temperature changes, the resultant variations in West African monsoon rainfall and, by implication, easterly wave frequency. Points of origin of tropical systems that developed into tropical cyclones (red circles) relative to phases of the MJO. Most of the effects were due to Manuel, though Ingrid was directly responsible for at least 32deaths and $20billion (MXN, US$1.5billion) in damage. stages of development of tropical cyclone ingrid. Street-Perrott, F. A., R. A. Perrott, 1990: Abrupt climate fluctuations in the tropics: The influence of the Atlantic circulation. The active 2005 season in the North Atlantic was attributed to extraordinarily warm ocean temperatures in that basin,168,169 however the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico were similarly warm in 2006 (Fig. 94. how did tropical cyclone ingrid impact economy. Over the next several days, the hurricane delivered historic amounts of rainfall across North and South Carolina . In terms of the life cycle of a tropical cyclone, which on average lasts for nine days, it passes through four phases as well. 77. Montgomery, M. T., V. A. Vladimirov, and P. V. Denissenko, 2002: An experimental study on hurricane mesovortices. Gill, A. E., 1980: Some simple solutions for heat-induced tropical circulation. On interannual timescales, tropical cyclone variability can stem from global patterns of atmosphere or atmosphereocean variation, such as the El Nio Southern Oscillation (ENSO)92,161,162 or the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO)162,163,164,165 of the lower stratospheric wind. [19] The Pnuco River in Tamaulipas rose above its banks, flooding two poor towns along its path and damaging adjacent roads. C. Pertaining to an Emperor, the_______ classifies elements in categories showing which elements possess similar characteristics and react similarly with other elements. 144. This storm later made landfall in Texas as a Category 2 hurricane. 8.32) are: j Gonu is the word for a bag made of palm leaves in the Maldives. where pA and pB bound the layer in which the mean temperature gradient, , is calculated and zA and zB are the physical heights of these pressure layers. In the strict formulation of the Carnot model, the heat added to keep the surface air isothermal can come from two sources: sensible heat flux at the ocean surface (warm water heating the air via conduction) and heat release due to the frictional deceleration of the winds as they flow over the ocean surface. They lead to great devastations. As a result, tropical cyclones may be referred to as "warmcored." a) Formation and initial development (b) Full maturity (c) Modification or decay! [17] In Tamaulipas, classes were canceled in 27municipalities,[18] and all classes were temporarily canceled throughout Veracruz. Copyright 2011, University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Tropical Cyclones. It is also the region with the largest number of intense tropical cyclones (orange through red tracks); Tropical cyclones in the western North Pacific and the North Atlantic can have tracks that extend to very high latitudes. [Available online at. Many tropical disturbances exist, but only a few develop into tropical cyclones.42 The success of an individual disturbance depends upon its environment.71,88, An alternative view of a tropical cyclone is to consider it to be a closed system, a "Carnot engine"89,90 (Fig. In addition to estimates of intensity, remotely-sensed observations help scientists to understand the large-scale environment and TC internal instabilities, factors which influence tropical cyclone This is the definition of genesis that we will use here: tropical cyclogenesis [27] Two people in the state required rescue after their truck was swept away by a river. General characteristics. Why does every tropical cyclone not become a severe tropical cyclone? Storm structure. Pfeffer, R. L., M. Challa, 1992: The role of environmental asymmetries in Atlantic hurricane formation. equivalent potential temperature () above the boundary layer that is equal to e of the boundary layer air. However, implicit in this operational genesis criterion Fig. Western Sahel rainfall has also been linked to North Atlantic tropical cyclone activity.31,159 Whether the SAL is involved in any intraseasonal modulation of Atlantic storm activity related to western Sahel rainfallor whether Sahel rainfall is a straightforward proxy for easterly wave genesis frequencyremains an open question.
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